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Colostomy
To perform a colostomy, the surgeon enters the abdomen and locates the colon, or large intestine (A). A loop of the colon is pulled through the abdominal incision (B); then the colon is cut to allow the insertion of a catheter (C). The skin and tissues are closed around the new opening, called a stoma (D). (Illustration by GGS Inc.)

Bronchoscopy
Bronchoscopy can be performed via the patient's mouth (A) or through the nose (C). During the procedure, the scope is fed down the trachea and into the bronchus leading to the lungs (B), providing the physician with a view of internal structures (D). (Illustration by GGS Inc.)

Thoracotomy
For a thoracotomy, the patient lies on his or her side with one arm raised (A). An incision is cut into the skin of the ribcage (B). Muscle layers are cut, and a rib may be removed to gain access to the cavity. (C). Retractors hold the ribs apart, exposing the lung (D). After any repairs are made, the cut rib is replaced and held in place with special materials (E). Layers of muscle and skin are stitched. (Illustration by GGS Inc.)

Liver Biopsy
In a traditional liver biopsy, access to the liver is gained through an incision in the abdomen (A).The liver is exposed (B). A wedge-shaped section is cut into the liver and removed (C).The liver incision is stitched (D).The abdominal incision is then repaired (E). (Illustration by GGS Inc.)

Lumpectomy
During a lumpectomy, a small incision is made around the area of the lump (A). The skin is pulled back, and the tumor removed (B). The incision is closed (C). (Illustration by GGS Inc.)

Orchiectomy
In an orchiectomy, the scrotum is cut open (A). Testicle covering is cut to expose the testis and spermatic cord (B). The cord is tied and cut, removing the testis (C), and the wound is repaired (D). (Illustration by GGS Inc.)

Splenectomy
There are two options for accessing the spleen for a splenectomy (A, 1 and 2). After the abdomen is entered, the spleen is located, and the artery leading to it is tied off (B). The ligament connecting the stomach and spleen is cut (C), as is the ligament connecting the spleen and colon (D). This frees the spleen for removal (E). (Illustration by GGS Inc.)

Breast Biopsy
During a needle biopsy on the breast, a local anesthetic is used, and a needle with a looped end is inserted into the potential tumor (A). A sample is taken (B), and the needle withdrawn (C). The sample is sent to a laboratory for analysis. (Illustration by GGS Inc.)

Colporrhaphy
In this anterior colporrhaphy, a speculum is used to hold open the vagina, and the cystocele is visualized (A). The wall of the vagina is cut open to reveal an opening in the supporting structures, or fascia (B). The defect is closed (C), and the vaginal skin is repaired (D). (Illustration by GGS Inc.)

Cone Biopsy
In a cone biopsy, the patient lies on her back, and a speculum is inserted into the vagina (A). The cervix is visualized, and a cone-shaped piece of the cervix is removed (B and C). A cauterizing tool is used to stop any bleeding (D). (Illustration by GGS Inc.)

Bowel Resection
To remove a portion of the colon, or large intestine, and incision is made in the abdomen to expose the area (A). Tissues and muscles connecting the colon to surrounding organs are severed (B). The area to be removed is clamped and severed (C). The remaining portions of the bowel, the ileum (small intestine) and transverse colon, are connected with sutures (D). Muscles and tissues are repaired (E). (Illustration by GGS Inc.)

Endotracheal Intubation
The doctor inserts the laryngoscope into the patient's mouth, advancing through the trachea to the vocal cords (A). An endotracheal tube is inserted into the airway (B). The balloon cuff is inflated, and the laryngoscope is removed (C). (Illustration by GGS Inc.)

Endoscopic Retrograde Cholangiopancreatography
In endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography, an endoscope is introduced into the patient's mouth and fed through the esophagus, stomach, and duodenum (small intestine) (A). A dye is released into the ducts (B). A series of x rays is taken, and a tumor may be visible with the endoscope (C). (Illustration by GGS Inc.)

Exenteration
A large abdominal incision exposes abdominal and pelvic contents for pelvic exenteration (A). Contents of the lower abdominal cavity, including the rectosigmoid colon, prostate and seminal vesicles (if male), bladder, and any pelvic tumors are removed (B). (Illustration by GGS Inc.)

Bone Marrow Transplantation
Bone marrow consists of red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets (A). In a bone marrow transplant, bone marrow is harvested from the donor's pelvic bone at the iliac crest (B). The marrow is filtered (C) before being introduced into a large vein in the recipient's chest via a catheter (D). (Illustration by GGS Inc.)

Modified Radical Mastectomy
Woman with scars from a modified radical mastectomy. (Biophoto Associates/Science Source. Reproduced by permission.)

Modified Radical Mastectomy
In a modified radical mastectomy, the skin on the breast is cut open (A). The skin is pulled back, and the tumor, lymph nodes, and breast tissue are removed (B and C). The incision is closed (D). (Illustration by GGS Inc.)

Sentinel Lymph Node Biopsy
At the site of a previous cancer removal, a radionuclide dye is injected (A and B). The area of maximum radioactivity is traced to a lymph node under the arm (C). The area is cut open, and the lymph node is identified by its blue dye (D). After the lymph node is removed, the area is checked for further radioactivity (E). (Illustration by GGS Inc.)

Transurethral Resection of the Prostate
An enlarged prostate can cause urinary problems due to its location around the male urethra (A). In TURP, the physician uses a cystoscope to gain access to the prostate through the urethra (B). The prostate material that has been restricting urine flow is cut off in pieces, which are washed into the bladder with water from the scope (B). (Illustration by GGS Inc.)

Simple Mastectomy
In a simple mastectomy, the skin over the tumor is cut open (A). The tumor and tissue surrounding it are removed (B), and the wound is closed (C). (Illustration by GGS Inc.)

Ileoanal Anastomosis
In an ileoanal anastomosis, a pouch is used to create a large section of bowel whose function replaces that of the large intestine, or colon. In this operation, the ileum (part of the small intestine) is shaped into a W-shaped pouch (A). An incision is made (B) to open up the shape and create the larger pouch, which is left open at one end and brought through the rectal area (C). The bottom of the pouch acts as a new rectum, and a new anus is fashioned (D). (Illustration by GGS Inc.)

Axillary Dissection
To determine the advancement of breast cancer, lymph nodes in the armpit are removed. An incision is made (A), and lymph nodes are removed and tested (B), leaving a small scar (C). (Illustration by GGS Inc.)

Hemangioma Excision
To remove a hemangioma that is very large or in a troublesome area (A), the surgeon makes an incision around the mark (B), then closes the skin around it (C). (Illustration by GGS Inc.)

Heart-Lung Transplantation
Chest is opened to expose the diseased heart and lung to be removed (A). Heart and lung function is taken over by a heart-lung machine. Major blood vessels are severed, and the heart is removed (B). Bronchus and blood vessels leading to the lung are severed, and the lung is removed (C). Donor heart and lung are placed in the patient's the chest cavity (D). They are sutured to their appropriate connections, and the heart is restarted before the patient is taken off the heart-lung machine (E). (Illustration by GGS Inc.)

Lung Transplantation
During a lung transplant, the chest is opened to reveal the heart, lungs, and major blood vessels (A). Inferior and superior pulmonary veins and pulmonary artery are separated, and lung is removed (B). The bronchus of the donor lung is connected to the patient's existing bronchus (C). The pulmonary artery is attached (D), and the pulmonary vein and other blood vessels are also connected (E). (Illustration by GGS Inc.)

Open Prostatectomy
During a digital rectal exam (B), the doctor may feel an enlargement of the prostate that can be benign or cancerous. If an open prostatectomy is needed, an incision may made the lower abdomen (C) or the perineal area (D). In either case, the prostate and any cancer is removed (E). (Illustration by GGS Inc.)