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Laminectomy
In this posterior (from the back) lumbar laminectomy, an incision is made in the patient's back over the lumbar vertebrae (A). The wound is opened with retractors to expose the L2 and L3 vertebrae (B). A piece of bone at the back of the vertebrae is removed (C and D), allowing a damaged disk to be repaired (E). (Illustration by GGS Inc.)

Craniotomy
In a craniotomy, the skin over a part of the skull is cut and pulled back (A). Small holes are drilled into the skull (B), and a special saw is used to cut the bone between the holes (C). The bone is removed, and a tumor or other defect is visualized and repaired (D). The bone is replaced (E), and the skin closed (F). (Illustration by GGS Inc.)

Spinal Fusion
In this spinal fusion, the surgeon makes an incision in the lower abdomen to access the lumbosacral spine (A). The disks between the vertebrae are removed (B), and bone grafts are inserted into the spaces (C). Then another incision is made in the patient's back (D), and the vertebrae are exposed and fixed to the pedicle plates and screws (E) (Illustration by GGS Inc.)

Electroencephalography
The electrodes taped to this boy's scalp monitor his brain activity (brain waves) by detecting the electric impulses generated by the brain's activity. (Science Source/Photo Researchers. Reproduced by permission.)

Endotracheal Intubation
The doctor inserts the laryngoscope into the patient's mouth, advancing through the trachea to the vocal cords (A). An endotracheal tube is inserted into the airway (B). The balloon cuff is inflated, and the laryngoscope is removed (C). (Illustration by GGS Inc.)

Cerebral Aneurysm Repair
To repair a cerebral aneurysm by craniotomy, an incision is made in the skin on the side of the head (A). Small holes are drilled in the skull (B), and a special saw is used to cut the bone between the holes (C). The bone is removed (D), and the aneurysm is treated (E). The bone is replaced, and the skin is sutured closed (F). (Illustration by GGS Inc.)

Disk Removal
In the anterior cervical disk removal, an incision is made into the patient's neck (B). The cervical disk, which may be herniated, is visualized (C). It is removed completely (D and E). (Illustration by GGS Inc.)