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Circumcision
During a circumcision, the outer layer of the foreskin around the penis is cut (A). The foreskin is pulled away (B), and the remaining membrane is cut away (C). Sutures are used to stitch the area (D). (Illustration by GGS Inc.)

Vasectomy
In a vasectomy, an incision is made in the man's scrotum. The spermatic cord is pulled out (B) and incised to expose the vas deferens, which is then severed (C). The ends may be cauterized or tied off (D). After the procedure is repeated on the opposite cord, the scrotal incision is closed (E). (Illustration by GGS Inc.)

Cholecystectomy
In a laparoscopic cholecystectomy, four small incisions are made in the abdomen (A). The abdomen is filled with carbon dioxide, and the surgeon views internal structures with a video monitor (B). The gallbladder is located and cut with laparoscopic scissors (C). It is then removed through an incision (D). (Illustration by GGS Inc.)

Kidney Transplant
For a kidney transplant, an incision is made in the lower abdomen (A). The donor kidney is connected to the patient's blood supply lower in the abdomen than the native kidneys, which are usually left in place (B). A transplanted ureter connects the donor kidney to the patient's bladder (C). (Illustration by GGS Inc.)

Lithotripsy
Kidney stones that are too big to pass through the ureter become very painful (B). During lithotripsy, the patient is put in a tub of water, or on a water-filled blanket. Shock waves are used to break up the stone (C). These smaller pieces are able to pass out of the body (D). (Illustration by GGS Inc.)

Kidney Dialysis
Nurse working in a kidney dialysis unit. (Custom Medical Stock Photo. Reproduced by permission.)

Nephrectomy
To remove a kidney in an open procedure, an incision is made below the ribcage (A). The kidney is exposed (B) and connections to blood vessels and the ureter are severed (C). The kidney is removed in one piece (D). (Illustration by GGS Inc.)

Cystectomy
In a cystectomy with ileal conduit, an incision is made in the patient's lower abdomen (A). The ureters are disconnected from the bladder, which is then removed (B). They are then attached to a section of ileum (small intestine) that has been removed and refashioned for that purpose (C). A stoma, or hole in the abdominal wall, is created at the site to allow drainage of the urine (D). (Illustration by GGS Inc.)

Vagotomy
To perform a vagotomy, the surgeon makes an incision in the patient's abdomen (A). The stomach is located (B), and the vagus nerves are cut in turn (C and D). (Illustration by GGS Inc.)

Hydrocelectomy
A hydrocele is a pocket of fluid inside a man's testicle (A). To remove it, the surgeon cuts through the skin and tissue layers (B), then drains the hydrocele with a tube (C). The hydrocele is opened completely (D), and skin and tissue layers are stitched (E). (Illustration by GGS Inc.)

Cystocele Repair
In this cystocele repair by anterior colporrhaphy, a speculum is used to hold open the vagina, and the cystocele is visualized (A). The wall of the vagina is cut open to reveal an opening in the supporting structures, or fascia (B). The defect is closed (C), and the vaginal skin is repaired (D). (Illustration by GGS Inc.)

Hypophysectomy
Hypophysectomy is a procedure to access and remove the pituitary gland (A). To access it, an incision is made beneath the patient's upper lip to enter the nasal cavity (B). A speculum is inserted, and special forceps are used to remove the pituitary tumor (C). (Illustration by GGS Inc.)

Hypospadias Repair
In hypospadias, the urethral opening is at the base of the penis, instead of the tip (A). Tissue grafts are used to create an extension for the urethra (C) and alleviate the tight skin, or chordee, on the underside of the penis. (Illustration by GGS Inc.)

Nephrolithotomy, Percutaneous
During a percutaneous nephrolithotomy, the surgeon inserts a needle through the patient's back directly into the kidney (B). A nephroscope uses an ultrasonic or laser probe to break up large kidney stones (C). Pieces of the stones are suctioned out with the scope, and a nephrostomy tube drains the kidney of urine (D). (Illustration by GGS Inc.)

Vasovasostomy
In a vasovasostomy, the surgeon makes an incision in scrotum at the site of the vasectomy scar (B). The spermatic cords are located, and the two vas deferens are reconnected with two layers of suture (C and D). (Illustration by GGS Inc.)

Ileal Conduit Surgery
In a cystectomy with ileal conduit, an incision is made in the patient's lower abdomen (A). The ureters are disconnected from the bladder, which is then removed (B). They are then attached to a section of ileum (small intestine) that has been removed and refashioned for that purpose (C). A stoma, or hole in the abdominal wall, is created at the site to allow drainage of the urine (D). (Illustration by GGS Inc.)

Bladder Augmentation
During a bladder augmentation procedure, an incision is made in the abdomen to expose the intestines and bladder (A). A section of ileum (small intestine) is removed and opened (B). After being sterilized, it is grafted onto the bladder to increase its capacity (C). The appendix and cecum (large intestine) may also be used (D). (Illustration by GGS Inc.)

Artificial Sphincter Insertion
Normally, the anal sphincter muscles maintain fecal continence (A). In cases of incontinence, an artificial sphincter may be inserted, which can open and close to mimic the function of the natural sphincter (B). Once implanted, the patient uses a pump under the skin to inflate and deflate the anal cuff (C). (Illustration by GGS Inc.)